Wampum

Fewer Veterans, More Armistices

As Citizen, Ward, Neutral, or Enemy Alien?

The 1914-1918 struggle between Europeans had both an immediate and lasting affect on Indians living under both the Canadian and American regimes. Before either state initiated conscription, Indians enlisted, or tried to enlist in the Canadian Army. The word ksisisttsomo'koan entered Siksika, giving Germans a name, ksis pointed or sharp, isttsomo hat 'koan people -- the Ulhans. Crossing the Medicine Line to Grandmother's Country re-entered our histories.

Carlos Montezuma (Yavapai) graduated from the Chicago Medical College of Northwestern University in 1890. William Plummer, my great-grandfather (Eastern Tsalagi) graduated from the University of Arkansas Medical School ten years later. Adopted-out from age 6, Carlos Montezuma grew up in the East. Will Plummer moved to Little Rock, then moved back to Cherokee City. Dr. Montezuma became an Assimilationist politician, and co-founded the Society of American Indians, the first Pan-Indian Movement of the 20th century. Dr. Plummer practiced medicine, respected tradition, and lived, died, and is buried in Cherokee City Cemetery along the Arkansas-Oklahoma Indian Territory border.

Two Indian doctors, contemporaries, and two life choices. Zitkala-Sa was engaged to Dr. Montezuma, and published "An Indian Teacher Among Indians" in the Atlantic Monthly (March 1900) and "Why I Am a Pagan" Atlantic Monthly (Dec. 1902). These were widely read. I know my great-grandfather didn't need to read the second of these. Zitkala-Sa chose to return to the Yankton Agency, choosing the "grander thing to live among the Indians" (April 1901 letter to Carlos Montezuma) and not join Dr. Montezuma living as a "missionary among whites". Will Plummer married Lucy Williams (Eastern Tsalagi), the daughter of Kezziah Williams, one of the two Kezziah's our Kezzie is named after. His son William joined the Army when he was 15, and served with the AEF in the Ardennes in Belgium.

Dr. Montezuma opposed the draft of non-citizen Indians. He saw conscription of thousands of young Indian men into a European Civil War as an opportunity to change the political status of Indians generally. He wrote to Simon Kahanados (Wisconsin Indian, tribe not known) this:

I do not think it is just for the Superintendents of the Indian service to get Indian young men to go to war. Why, because the United States Government has not given freedom to these young men. The Indian young men would be fighting for the United States government that is keeping them as slaves and not citizens of their own country. It does not look right to me or to those who love justice. The Indian is competent to be a soldier but not a citizen. That does not look right either. Indians that does not vote and lives from the Government he cannot (be) drafted or forced into the war.

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was the result of the application of American conscription in the years 1917 -1918 to Indians, some of whom were citizens prior to that act, some were not. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 as the result of the application of Canadian conscription in the years 1914 -1918 to Indians, some of whom were citizens prior to that act, some were not. Modernly we see these as the imposition of, not the grant of, citizenship. The continuation of the Assimilationist Policy of substitution of a synthetic American political and cultural identity for Indian identities.

Today is Armistice Day. The hour, day, month that the Great War in Europe ended. The day of the putting down of guns. The day thousands of Indians, painted in clay, climbed up out of the trenches and embrassed the ksisisttsomo'koan soldiers, saying "Brother, it is good to see you live."

Posted by EBW at November 11, 2004 11:00 AM | TrackBack